This article will take an in-depth look at types of mills.
The article will bring more detail to topics such as:
In this section, we delve into the workings of mills and identify the typical components that constitute these machines.
A mill is a machine engineered to fragment solid materials into smaller pieces through methods such as cutting, grinding, or crushing. The milling process involves exerting force on a material to break it down and decrease its size, which improves the effectiveness of the ingredients and enhances the quality of the final products made from them. Milling is generally categorized into two types: dry milling, which involves particle-to-particle collision, and wet milling, where materials are mixed in a slurry.
There are various forms of mills, each tailored to crush or process different materials. Early models were hand-operated, powered by animals, or driven by wind or water. Nowadays, modern mills utilize electricity, providing increased power and decreasing labor expenses.
In milling, solid materials are pulverized using mechanical force that breaches the material's internal structure by surpassing its bonds. This method converts solid substances into smaller particles, grains, or varied shapes. Milling also includes the steps of breaking down, sizing, separating, or classifying materials such as mineral ores. For example, grinding rocks can produce consistent particle sizes for use in construction or separate rock from soil for filler or land reclamation.
Milling is also employed to eliminate or separate impurities or moisture from soil, producing dry fill for use in transportation or construction. The milling process fulfills several critical engineering functions:
Mills are intricate machines composed of various parts and components that must work together efficiently to achieve the desired milling results. Despite the diversity in mill designs, there are certain essential components common to all types. The shell is the most fundamental part of a mill, requiring exceptional strength, durability, and resilience to endure the rigors of the milling process.
The shell is constructed from thick steel plates that are meticulously welded and sealed into a cylindrical shape to ensure resistance to distortion or failure. For optimal durability, the welding process is often automated to achieve precise and consistent results. A key characteristic of any mill is its ability to withstand high-impact forces and heavy loads. Holes are drilled into the shell to accommodate bolts that secure the mill's liner, though wedge-type liners may not require this.
Flanges are engineered to fit the specific dimensions and materials processed by a mill. They must maintain uniform diameter and may feature recesses and undercuts near the arbor sleeve. Proper maintenance of flanges is crucial, focusing on aspects such as flatness, surface finish, balance, and wear. Careful tightening is essential to avoid flange warping or other potential damage.
Shell liners serve as protective barriers, lining the interior of the shell to shield it from the forces generated during milling. The material used for liners varies depending on the type of mill and the materials being processed. Rubber liners are typically used in ball mills, while metal liners are more common in autogenous (AG) and semi-autogenous (SAG) mills. The liner's design plays a significant role in influencing the movement of the milling media.
Mill heads, typically constructed from iron or steel, are crucial components of a mill. They are securely bolted to the shell's flange and come in either a conical shape or a starfish design. Conical heads are commonly found in ball, rod, preliminary, Ballpeb, and Compeb mills, while the starfish design is used in longer Ballpeb and Compeb mills, offering enhanced support and strength due to the braces. A vital feature of the mill head is the trunnion bearings, which provide critical support for the revolving material within the mill.
The pinion shaft is the drive mechanism for a mill that moves the gear train that turns the mill assembly. It is mounted on roller bearings that have a decreased friction coefficient, which requires minimum lubrication and has excellent seal. Lubrication is provided from a reservoir located at the bottom of the gear housing where a lubricating pinion mates with the main gear.
Smaller mills with less than 250 hp typically use a V-belt drive, while larger mills with over 250 hp are equipped with a direct drive system. Direct drive mills feature wound rotor motors that are directly connected to the pinion shaft. Various types of motors are available for driving a mill, offering different torque levels based on the mill's design and the manufacturer's specifications.
Mill feed chutes are available in various shapes, sizes, and configurations. The selection of a chute depends on the industry and the type of material to be milled. For example, in mining, cement, and rock production, mills may be designed with or without a chute. The types of feeders include combination, spout, scoop, and drum types.
After the grinding and processing of the material, it is expelled from the mill via the discharge system. The method of discharge varies depending on the mill's design, often resembling the process of pouring liquid from a container. The common discharge mechanisms include overflow, peripheral, and diaphragm types.
Grinding media plays a crucial role in refining and reducing particle sizes to achieve a range of shapes and sizes for different applications. It comes in various forms, including both metallic and non-metallic types, each suited for processing different materials. Choosing the appropriate grinding media is essential for the effectiveness of the grinding operation.
Metallic grinding media includes carbon steel, forged steel, stainless steel, and chrome steel, which come in the form of balls, beads, bars, and tiny cylinders.
Non-metallic grinding media consists of materials such as alumina balls, glass beads, silicon carbide balls, silicon nitride balls, ceramic balls, and zirconium balls. These types are preferred in situations where avoiding contamination is critical. Selecting the appropriate non-metallic media depends on the material being processed, as incorrect choices can potentially damage the mill's interior lining.
Generally, mills are classified into four primary categories, each suited for different grinding, crushing, or fine-cutting applications. These categories are outlined below.
A conical mill, also known as a conical screen mill, is designed to uniformly reduce the size of materials. It serves as an alternative to hammer mills. The mill features a varying diameter from the feed inlet to the discharge outlet. In operation, material is introduced into the mill either by gravity or vacuum. The rotating impeller pushes the material outward against the conical screen surface, where it is resized. Once processed, the material falls through the chamber and is collected below.
Conical mills are available in various shapes and sizes, ranging from compact laboratory models to large, high-capacity machines suitable for processing substantial quantities of material. They can be customized with different impellers and screens to meet specific requirements. These mills are versatile, used not only for particle size reduction but also for tasks such as deagglomeration, dispersion, sieving, and mixing. Conical mills find applications in industries such as food processing, cosmetics, chemicals, and pharmaceuticals. For instance, they are employed to break down damaged pharmaceutical tablets before reprocessing them into their intended form.
Compared to other milling equipment, conical mills offer several distinct advantages. They produce less noise, generate minimal heat and dust, ensure a more uniform particle size, and provide greater flexibility in design with a higher capacity. Originating in 1976, the design of conical mills has evolved to include various sieves and impellers. The mill head is mounted on a mobile hoist, facilitating easy adjustments for container docking and integration with tablet presses and other processes. Additionally, the mill head can be removed for straightforward cleaning.
Contemporary hammer mills function on a simple yet effective principle. They require a powerful engine, durable hammers, and sharp knives to operate. The process involves a rotor equipped with hammers that rapidly strike the material, which is held in place by a stationary powder bed. The impact from the hammers reduces the material between them and the mill casing. This process continues until the particles are sufficiently fine to pass through a sieve at the bottom of the mill. Hammer mills are designed to handle both fibrous and brittle materials. For fibrous materials, additional projections on the casing are often used to enhance the cutting action. Hammer mills are generally classified into two types: horizontal shaft and vertical shaft. To ensure durability, impact surfaces, often made of steel or stainless steel, can be coated with abrasion-resistant materials.
Hammer blades come in different configurations, featuring either flat or serrated edges. The shape of the hammer is tailored to the specific mill or task, with common shapes including stirrup and bar designs. For pharmaceutical applications, stainless steel hammers are often employed. Bar-shaped hammers are typically used for tablet granulation, while stirrup-shaped hammers are preferred for achieving finer particle sizes.
Hammer mills may utilize either swing or rigid hammers. Swing hammers are designed to move freely, creating additional clearance between the hammers and the screens, which helps manage material build-up. In contrast, rigid hammers do not move, and the mill features an enclosed chamber that surrounds the mesh screen or grid. Instead of woven screens, these mills use metal sheets with various hole sizes and slot thicknesses.
The materials enter the crushing chamber through a feeding mechanism, which can be either gravity-based or metered. The choice of feeding system depends on the hammer mill's design and the need for product uniformity. Metering systems are particularly useful in applications requiring consistent product quality, as they minimize variability. An example of such a system includes a pneumatic rotary valve positioned between the crushing chambers, often used in conjunction with a feeding hopper.
The insertion of particles into the crushing chambers is facilitated entirely by the force of gravity. A control box can be used to turn the machine on or off. The electric motor and feeding system can be controlled depending on user requirements. Some pharmaceutical milling machines have a display panel that allows users to monitor every process that is done. The mill can run at high speeds between 2,500 to 60,000 revolutions per minute. The hammers will typically rotate either clockwise or anticlockwise on the horizontal shafts. This can be affected by the rotation of the rotor.
In this type of mill, feed materials typically range from 4 to 8mm in size and are introduced into the grinding chamber via an intake chute at the mill's door. Size reduction occurs between the adjustable disc stator and the high-speed rotating grinder disc, which employs a cutting or shearing action. The grinding process is carried out in stages, starting from the inner to the outer edges of the grinding gap. The processed material exits the milling area through this gap, and for applications requiring precise control over particle size, the mill can be paired with an appropriate screening machine.
Oversized or large particles are redirected to the feeding zone for additional processing. This type of mill is commonly employed for the fine grinding of plastics at room temperature. For heat-sensitive feed materials, the mill operates in a cryogenic mode to prevent temperature-induced damage during the grinding process.
Coarse-cut mills differ from fine-cut mills in that they are designed for applications where materials do not need to be finely ground. The cutting tools in these mills facilitate a less intense milling process. These mills are often employed in the food industry, where they are used to process food particles that require moderate rather than fine crushing. Coarse milling utilizes specialized screens that are designed to gently crush and shear materials, allowing for a less aggressive milling action.
The mill screen is driven by rotary forces, which causes it to spin and interact with the materials inside. The high-speed, rough surfaces of the rotating screen cut and trim the material to the desired size. This type of mill is commonly used to produce products like sugar and coarse salt. While many of these mills are powered electrically for enhanced efficiency, some models, especially those for home use, rely on a hand crank to operate the grinding mechanism.
A key component in the size reduction process is the grinding mill, which transforms larger-sized materials into fine powder. Grinding mills are designed specifically for this reduction process and include types such as rod mills, ball mills, and attrition mills. These mills reduce materials by grinding, pulverizing, or comminuting them into a finer form, without engaging in crushing or granulation.
The selection of materials for use in a grinding mill depends on several characteristics including hardness, brittleness, toughness, abrasiveness, stickiness, softness, melting temperature, grain structure, specific gravity, moisture content, chemical stability, homogeneity, and purity. Among these, hardness is the most critical; overly hard materials may damage the mill and thus require specialized equipment.
Brittleness is also essential, as materials that are not brittle can be challenging to grind. Additionally, moisture content must be managed, as moist materials tend to adhere to the internal surfaces of the mill.
During the early stages of the grinding process, the final particle size of the material is determined by the degree of fineness, which is typically a percentage of the original material’s size. For fine grinding, the processed material usually achieves a fineness of 90% to 95% of the original size, with some high-demand applications requiring up to 99%.
Grinding mills are divided into tumbling, rolling, and very fine grinding mills with fine grinding mills being high speed hammer mills, vibrating mills, pin mills, turbo mills, fluid energy mills, and stirred mills. A grinding mill circuit includes the feed system, mill, classifier, separator, and product collector. Closed circuit grinding mills return large particles for remilling while open circuit grinding mills do not feedback in a loop.
Various types of mills fall into the categories mentioned earlier, including:
Wet grinding, also referred to as wet milling, involves processing materials in a liquid state or as a slurry. This method is commonly used to break down agglomerates. Historically, mills designed for damp materials have been produced, but as demands shifted towards finer particles, existing equipment became insufficient. As a result, advancements were made in both the machinery and processing techniques to meet the evolving needs for finer materials.
The first stage in wet grinding involves de-agglomeration, where clumped materials, such as paint molecules, are processed to break up lumps and prevent the formation of agglomerates. This is achieved by passing the product through a machine with close-tolerance settings that force the particles apart. To avoid the reformation of agglomerates, it is crucial to have an optimal formulation that coats each particle adequately.
Following de-agglomeration, the next step is to shear the particles to the desired size. Mills equipped with specialized components handle this task, including fluidizing disks, spacers, and other materials inside the chamber that are agitated by a rotating shaft. The narrow gaps between the medium, disks, and shaft create high pressure that breaks the particles into smaller sizes. Multiple passes through the machine are often necessary to achieve the desired sub-micro particle size.
Rotor-stator wet milling is predominantly utilized in the pharmaceutical sector to achieve finer particle sizes. This technique involves breaking down strongly bonded particles for subsequent processing. The rotor, rotating within the stator, generates a force that draws the material through the stator's openings. As the particles move through the tight spaces between the rotor and stator, they are progressively reduced in size.
The underlying concept of rotor-stator wet milling is to break down substances by suspending them in a liquid medium. The process involves shear forces acting within the confined spaces between the stationary stator and the rapidly spinning rotor. Typically constructed from resilient materials like steel or corundum, the rotor and stator come in various sizes depending on the specific needs of the milling process. Each manufacturer of rotor-stator mills customizes their equipment to achieve the desired level of material refinement.
The term “ball mill” refers to a type of grinding apparatus that contains spherical grinding media. The mill's length is typically the same as its diameter. Ball mills are extensively used in fields such as metallurgy, power generation, and mining. They offer high versatility and can process a diverse range of materials with impressive efficiency. One of the key attributes of ball mills is their ability to handle both wet and dry grinding operations effectively.
In ball mills, spherical media are employed to crush and grind materials. When the mill is activated, it rotates either horizontally or vertically. The material is loaded into the mill's chamber, where it is subjected to the action of the moving balls. As the mill rotates, the balls collide with the material, exerting sufficient force to break it down into finer particles. This mechanical action, driven by the mill's rotation, transforms the material into a fine powder.
For a ball mill to operate effectively, it must achieve its critical speed. This is the speed at which the balls within the mill begin to move along the interior walls. If the mill does not reach this critical speed, the balls will remain at the bottom and exert minimal impact on the material, resulting in inefficient grinding.
Ball mills differ significantly from traditional milling machinery. Unlike conventional mills, which rely on cutting tools for material removal, ball mills utilize the motion of spherical balls. There is no cutting tool involved in the ball mill process; instead, the grinding action is provided by the movement and collisions of the balls within the mill.
Ball mills and conventional milling machines differ from one another in their distinct functions. Ball mills and conventional milling equipment are both used to grind materials into smaller pieces. Ball bills can handle materials like ore, ceramics, and paint, whereas conventional milling machines can handle huge workpieces.
A tube mill features spherical grinding media, but its length is significantly greater than its diameter. It consists of rotating cylinders with smooth interiors filled with hard, round balls. The interior lining of these mills is typically constructed from durable materials such as hardwood or iron alloys, including steel and manganese steel.
Tube mills are characterized by their elongated cylinders with simple, smooth interiors. Inside these cylinders, numerous round grinding balls are arranged. Unlike roller mills, tube mills lack a dedicated cooling system for welded arcs, often requiring an additional cooling method. They may also utilize advanced welding techniques, including modern laser welding. To improve the quality of the final product, some tube mills incorporate hand-woven tubes. These mills are commonly used for manufacturing plumbing pipes or tubes, which are typically found in plumbing and construction supply stores. The design of tube mills allows them to operate at high speeds, providing the necessary hardness for applications such as drainage systems.
Tube mills function similarly to belt grinders. The material, whether it be wire or sheet metal, is loaded into the drum, which then initiates the grinding process. The "grinders" inside the drum move back and forth to cut the material to the desired diameter. Some tube mills use a manual crank, while others are powered by electric motors. This process can involve either feeding the wire from within or grinding from the outside to achieve a consistent diameter and profile for ease of fitting and finishing.
In ore grinding applications, tube mills combine rotating discs with grinding wheels. The material, often steel, is placed inside the mill and then spun around the spindle over the grinding surface. As the balls in the disc rotate, they chip away at the material, forming sharp edges for cutting purposes. This method is akin to the operation of most belt grinders.
Unlike ball mills, rod mills utilize long rods as the grinding medium. These rods, similar to grinding balls, tumble within the mill to crush materials such as limestone and various ores. The rod mills are designed with a length-to-diameter ratio between 1.4 and 1.6 to prevent rod entanglement. They can handle feed sizes as large as 50 mm and produce output sizes ranging from 3000 mm to 270 mm. The grinding action is generated through line contact between the rods, which extend the full length of the mill. The rods rotate and tumble in parallel, mimicking the action of a series of roll crushers. This design minimizes the production of slimes and enhances the grinding of coarse materials.
Among the three main types of rod mills—overflow, end peripheral discharge, and center peripheral discharge—the overflow mill is the most commonly used. In the mineral processing industry, wet grinding with rod mills is preferred, although dry grinding is occasionally used despite its limitations. Rod mills operate at a slower speed compared to ball mills because the rods are rolled rather than cascaded. This slower speed leads to less steel consumption while achieving similar grinding efficiency due to better contact between the media and ore. Regular maintenance is required to remove broken or damaged rods and ensure optimal performance. Rod mills need careful monitoring as the rods must remain nearly parallel to avoid tangling and reduced grinding efficiency. The maximum rod length typically reaches around 6.1 meters (20 feet), which limits the length, diameter, and capacity of rod mills. Additionally, larger rods can lead to increased wear on mill liners and loaders.
Pebble mills, a variation of ball mills, utilize natural pebbles rather than spherical balls for grinding. These pebbles roll through the mill, effectively crushing materials contained within. They are particularly suited for grinding hard substances such as minerals, glass, advanced ceramics, and semiconductor materials to very fine sizes, often down to 1 micron or less. Pebble mills are sometimes known as ceramic-lined mills due to their use of ceramic linings. The extended residence time within the mill ensures that each particle undergoes consistent treatment, resulting in a narrow range of particle sizes and a more uniform product.
Historically, flint rocks were commonly used as the grinding media in pebble mills. However, modern industries now favor grinding materials made of aluminum oxide, with a composition ranging from 90% to 96%, and high-alumina bricks. These aluminum oxide (alumina) bricks are highly durable and provide excellent protection against contamination of the processed materials, making them ideal for lining contemporary pebble mills.
In the operation of pebble mills, small alumina grinding media are typically used to fill the rotating containers to about half their capacity. As the container turns slowly, the grinding media are lifted and then allowed to cascade down, continuously impacting the particles within. This process effectively grinds the material. The self-contained design of pebble mills offers the advantage of reducing worker exposure to the milled product. Pebble mills can be used for both dry and wet grinding, with wet grinding involving the dispersion of particles in a liquid medium.
In a grate-discharge mill, the diaphragm is designed as a grate, which controls the discharge of the grinding balls to the end of the mill. This grating system ensures that the ground material is retained in the space between the diaphragm and the opposite end of the mill, where it is collected by a scoop.
An air-swept mill utilizes a strong airflow to carry away the finer particles generated during the grinding process. This airstream passes through a classifier, which separates the fine particles from the coarser ones. The larger, rejected materials are then redirected back into the mill for further grinding. The mill features balls within a horizontally rotating drum, which is driven by an external gear mechanism.
Mixing involves the systematic combination of two or more different ingredients or particles to create a uniform material. Typically, ingredients are introduced into a rotating impeller via a trailing edge. The flow of material within the vessel is influenced by both the particle size and type, as well as the impeller's rotational speed. There are several types of mixers, including horizontal mixers, spiral mixers, and planetary mixers. Horizontal mixers are designed to handle large volumes of material, mixing them thoroughly before transferring the mixture to a trough for convenient transport. In contrast, spiral mixers use rotating spiral blades to achieve highly efficient mixing, ensuring thorough blending of ingredients.
A planetary mixer is a common kitchen appliance designed for mixing various food ingredients. It features a stationary bowl and rotating blades at the base that cut, crush, and blend the materials into a uniform mixture. Mixing, akin to dispersion, involves combining particles, with both processes using flow-driven methods to achieve the desired outcome. In mixing, two or more liquids are combined, and any applicable soluble solids are dissolved. The choice of impeller size in mixing depends on the properties of the ingredients, such as their viscosity and texture.
The milling process differs from mixing and dispersion as it focuses on particle-size reduction. After an initial dispersion, a blend requiring further size reduction is processed in a mill. Mills utilize various mechanical forces, including the medium, pegs, and screens, to break down particles to the desired size. This process maximizes ingredient yield and enhances product functionality. For coatings and inks, it contributes to color development, film properties, and flow characteristics.
To achieve the desired particle size, mills can be adjusted, and environmental conditions such as temperature can be controlled. With numerous types of mills available, selecting the right one can be challenging. Equipment suppliers often provide experimental services to help match the appropriate mill to specific needs and ensure optimal results.
This chapter will cover the various applications and advantages of milling machines. Additionally, it will address the maintenance practices necessary to keep these machines in optimal condition.
Mills are employed across numerous industries, including in many basic home applications. This section outlines some of the primary uses of mills.
In the pharmaceutical and chemical manufacturing sectors, mills are essential for grinding and reducing large particles into powders or fine-grained substances. Hammer mills are commonly employed to achieve an intermediate powder consistency. They are designed to produce a nearly precise particle size. However, hammer mills have limitations, such as their inability to handle sticky materials, which can clog the perforated screens.
In the food processing industry, mills are utilized for crushing and grinding various legumes. They are effective for processing nutshells, soybeans, certain seeds, and different types of beans. For removing hard shells, a hammer mill with lower hammer blows is typically employed, which helps in breaking down the tough outer layers.
In the medicinal and pharmaceutical industries, mills are crucial for micronization. They finely grind medicine particles to ensure precise dosage measurements for capsule packaging. By reducing the particle size, mills facilitate the accurate filling of capsules with the necessary quantities of medication.
Mills play a crucial role in breaking down large particles into smaller ones, enhancing their dissolution rate in solvents. Smaller particles dissolve more quickly, which can lead to time and cost savings in resource utilization.
Industrial mills are also used to mix various solid powders. They help create a uniform blend of dissimilar compounds, resulting in a well-integrated fibrous solid mixture.
Some ingredients require a boost in their chemical reactivity when added to formulations. Mills slightly crush these ingredients to enhance their activity, improving the overall effectiveness of the formulation.
In the automotive and mechanical industries, mills are employed for efficient scrapping processes. They crush surplus and spent metals, which are then melted down and repurposed for manufacturing new components or recycling.
Modern milling machines offer significant advantages in both industrial and home settings. Their robust construction and large size provide strong support, allowing them to handle heavy and bulky parts without damage. Additionally, these mills are designed with interchangeable components that can be replaced, ensuring continued operation even if parts become damaged.
Modern milling machines are often computer-controlled, which enhances their flexibility and precision. Computers allow for adjustments in grinding rates and cutting tools, optimizing machine efficiency and reducing the likelihood of human error. Automated systems ensure precise and consistent cuts that would be challenging to achieve manually. The integration of computer programs also facilitates full automation of the milling processes.
Furthermore, mills can be customized to meet specific user needs or to accommodate transportation and packaging constraints. They come equipped with various types of cutters designed for different applications, and can perform multiple cuts simultaneously, saving time and energy. The ability to produce complex shapes using multi-teeth and single-cutting tools, along with their capability to handle large batch productions, enhances their versatility.
Despite their advantages, milling machines have several drawbacks. They are often expensive to purchase, requiring a significant initial investment. Additionally, they consume a lot of electricity or fuel, leading to high operational costs. Their various sizes and weights make transportation challenging. Furthermore, milling machines are complex and require skilled operators, making them unsuitable for inexperienced users.
Early detection of issues such as a defective bearing seal can prevent costly repairs, as addressing minor problems early is cheaper than a full bearing replacement. Accumulation of waste material can obscure signs of damage, making regular cleaning and inspection crucial. Routine checks for equipment damage, protective covering integrity, and grout cracking are essential to avoid extensive issues.
While cleaning mills may seem straightforward, it requires careful handling. For instance, pressure hosing hot castings can cause cracks or deformation, and high-pressure sprays can lead to water ingress and premature bearing failure. It is important that staff are properly trained in cleaning procedures and that maintenance guidelines provided by the equipment supplier are followed to ensure proper care.
In conclusion, mills are devices that may be used in households or in an industrial setting to grind, crush, or cut huge materials into smaller, more manageable components. The mills are divided into many varieties according to their intended usage. Some mills are utilized in the mining sector where they are used to crush mineral ores from stones in order to separate them from the pure metal. To ensure that the mill lasts its whole lifespan and continues to function properly and efficiently, it is also crucial to have it cleaned and maintained.
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