This article contains comprehensive information about laser cutting and laser drilling. Read further to learn more about:
Laser cutting is an advanced method of slicing materials by utilizing a highly concentrated, coherent beam of light. This technique is effective for cutting through metals, paper, wood, and acrylics. As a subtractive manufacturing process, it works by removing material through mechanisms like vaporization, melting, chemical ablation, or controlled crack propagation. By employing laser optics powered by Computer Numerical Control (CNC), the technology can create holes as small as 5 microns (µ). One of the standout advantages of this process is the lack of residual stresses on the workpiece, making it suitable for both delicate and brittle materials.
Various techniques are employed in laser drilling, including single-shot, percussion, trepanning, and helical methods. While single-shot and percussion drilling excel in rapid hole production, trepanning and helical techniques are renowned for their precision and the superior quality of holes they generate.
Characterized as a non-contact method, laser cutting allows for slicing without direct physical interaction with the material. This process is especially effective for crafting high-strength or brittle items, such as diamond tools and refractory ceramics. First introduced in 1965, laser cutting initially served for drilling diamond dies and later expanded to cutting robust alloys and metals, like titanium, particularly in aerospace. Today, the versatility of laser cutting is evident as it is widely applied to a diverse range of materials, including polymers, semiconductors, gems, and metallic alloys.
Laser stands for "light amplification by stimulated emission of radiation." In addition to cutting, lasers are employed for various applications including joining, heat treating, inspection, and freeform manufacturing. Unlike other laser machining processes, laser cutting demands higher power densities but involves shorter interaction times.
Lasers are created by a high-intensity light source inside a reflective cavity, which houses a laser rod responsible for generating radiation. The light source stimulates the atoms in the laser rod, causing them to absorb specific wavelengths of light. Light is made up of photons, which energize the atoms in the laser rod. These energized atoms then emit two additional photons, each matching the wavelength, direction, and phase of the original photons, in a process known as stimulated emission. This creates a cascade of photon production as new photons stimulate further energized atoms.
The photons travel between parallel mirrors located at either end of the laser rod, remaining confined within the rod. One mirror is partially transmissive, allowing some of the light to escape the cavity. This escaping stream of coherent, monochromatic light forms the laser beam used for cutting materials. Additional mirrors or fiber optics direct this light into a lens, which focuses the beam onto the material being cut.
The three main types of lasers used for cutting are CO₂ Nd-YAG (Neodymium Yttrium-Aluminum-Garnet), and fiber-optic lasers. Each type uses different materials to generate the laser beam.
Fiber-optic lasers are the latest and most popular laser types due to their ability to generate various wavelengths for more precise cutting. They utilize an optical fiber cable made of silica glass to guide the light. The laser beam from fiber-optic lasers is more precise, being both straighter and smaller in diameter.
Fiber lasers vary according to their laser source mixture, including ytterbium-doped, thulium-doped, and erbium-doped. The choice of mixture is dependent on the application where they will be used and their wavelengths. For example, erbium generates light in the 1528 nm to 1620 nm range. Ytterbium produces light with wavelengths of 1030 nm, 1064 nm, and 1080 nm.
Fiber-optic lasers come in two modes: single-mode and multi-mode. Single-mode lasers have a core diameter ranging from 8 µm to 9 µm, while multi-mode lasers have diameters between 50 µm and 100 µm. Among these, single-mode lasers are more efficient and produce a higher quality beam of light.
Fiber-optic lasers are classified as solid-state lasers because their power source is silica glass doped with rare earth elements. In contrast, CO₂ lasers use gas to generate power. Additionally, fiber-optic lasers produce wavelengths from 780 nm to 2200 nm, whereas CO₂ lasers have wavelengths ranging from 9600 nm to 10,600 nm.
CO₂ lasers use a gas discharge lasing medium consisting of 10–20% carbon dioxide, 10–20% nitrogen, and traces of hydrogen, xenon, and helium. Unlike other lasers that rely on light for pumping, CO₂ lasers use electrical discharge. When an electrical current passes through the lasing medium, it excites nitrogen molecules to a higher energy state. These excited nitrogen molecules transfer their vibrational energy to CO₂ molecules rather than emitting photons directly. This process continues until most CO₂ molecules reach a metastable state, where they then emit infrared light at wavelengths of either 10.6 µm or 9.6 µm, transitioning to lower energy levels. The resonating mirrors are designed to reflect these photons, with one mirror partially reflecting to allow the infrared beam to escape for material cutting. After emitting the infrared light, CO₂ molecules return to their ground state by transferring their remaining energy to the doped helium atoms. These helium atoms heat up and are subsequently cooled by the laser’s cooling system. CO₂ lasers achieve an efficiency of around 30%, which is higher compared to other types of lasers.
In contrast to CO₂ lasers, Nd-YAG lasers are solid-state lasers that use a synthetic crystal as their lasing medium. The most common type employs a YAG (Y₃Al₅O₁₂) crystal doped with 1% ionized neodymium (Nd³⁺). In this crystal, Nd ions replace the Y ions. The Nd-YAG laser rod typically measures about 4 inches (10 cm) in length and 2.4 to 3.5 inches (6 to 9 cm) in diameter. Both ends of the YAG rod are polished and coated with highly reflective materials that serve as the resonator system.
Laser pumping in Nd-YAG lasers is accomplished using krypton flashlamps or laser diodes. This pumping process excites the Nd ions to higher energy levels. After a brief period, these excited Nd ions transition to a lower, more stable state without emitting photons. This excitation process continues until a significant number of Nd ions are in the excited state. When transitioning from this metastable state, the Nd ions release infrared light with a wavelength of 1064 nm.
Light traveling through a fiber-optic remains contained within the fiber with minimal energy loss. This characteristic makes fiber-optics more stable compared to other types, which require precise alignment to maintain performance.
Laser cutting utilizes assist gases, such as compressed air, nitrogen, or argon, injected through the nozzle to enhance the cutting process. These gases initiate the cutting by facilitating an exothermic reaction, which releases energy through light or heat. Assist gases improve the efficiency of heat transfer beyond what the laser beam alone can achieve. When cutting metals, these gases also help in removing the molten metal produced during the process.
The previous chapter explored the various types of lasers based on their beam formation, including different lasing pumps and media. The next section will cover the methods of laser cutting—specifically, how materials are precisely removed to create cuts. There are four primary methods of laser cutting: sublimating, melting, reacting, and thermal stress fracturing.
Sublimation is a phase change process where a material transitions directly from a solid to a gaseous state without passing through a liquid phase, similar to how dry ice vaporizes without becoming liquid. In laser cutting, this principle is applied by rapidly imparting a high amount of energy to the material, causing it to directly change from solid to gas with minimal melting.
The cutting process begins by forming an initial keyhole or kerf in the material. The kerf area, having higher absorptivity, leads to faster vaporization of the material. This rapid vaporization generates high-pressure vapor that erodes the walls of the kerf and ejects debris from the cut, thereby deepening and enlarging the cut.
This method is particularly effective for cutting materials like plastics, textiles, wood, paper, and foam, which require relatively small amounts of energy for vaporization.
In contrast to sublimation, melting requires significantly less energy—about one-tenth of what is needed for sublimating laser cuts. In this process, the laser beam heats the material until it melts. A jet of gas, expelled from a coaxial nozzle alongside the laser beam, then removes the molten material from the cut. The assist gases used in this method are typically inert or non-reactive (e.g., helium, argon, and nitrogen) and assist in the cutting process through mechanical means rather than chemical reactions.
Due to its low energy requirement, this method is particularly effective for cutting non-oxidizing or active metals such as stainless steel, titanium, and aluminum alloys.
In this process, a reactive gas is used to generate additional heat by reacting with the material. The procedure begins by melting the material with a laser beam. As the material melts, a stream of oxygen gas is directed from the coaxial nozzle, where it reacts with the molten metal. This reaction is exothermic, meaning it releases heat, which aids in further melting the material. This additional heat contributes approximately 60% of the total energy required for cutting. The pressure from the oxygen jet also expels the molten metal oxides.
While this method requires less energy from the laser beam and offers faster cutting speeds compared to using inert gases, it does have drawbacks. Since the process relies on a chemical reaction, the molten metal oxide that isn’t expelled by the oxygen jet can accumulate along the edge of the cut, resulting in lower cut quality compared to inert gas cutting.
This technique is commonly used for cutting thick carbon steels, titanium steels, and other metals that easily oxidize.
This process involves creating a small kerf at approximately one-third the thickness of the material using a laser. The laser then induces localized stresses by heating a small area, which generates compressive forces around the spot. As the heated area cools, thermal stresses develop. In certain designs, coolants may be employed to enhance the generation of these stresses. Once these induced stresses exceed the material's failure threshold, a crack propagates, leading to separation.
The movement of the laser beam allows for precise control over the separation process. This technique typically requires less power compared to laser vaporization and achieves better cutting speeds. Localized heating is generally conducted below the glass transition temperature.
CO₂ lasers are commonly used for this purpose, as their infrared light with a wavelength of 10.6 µm is particularly effective for cutting most nonmetals. However, not all materials can be cut with a single type of laser, as different materials absorb light at varying wavelengths. Thermal stress fractures are particularly useful for cutting brittle materials such as ceramics and glass.
Stealth Dicing is a newer method that leverages principles of thermal stress fracture. Developed by Hamamatsu Photonics, this laser cutting technology is employed for cutting semiconductor wafers and components of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). In Stealth Dicing, the initial kerf is created at an internal point within the material. This dry cutting process results in a clean cut with no molten deposits.
Stealth Dicing, a laser cutting technology originally developed by Hamamatsu Photonics, is used for cutting semiconductor wafers and components of microelectromechanical systems (MEMS). This method creates the initial kerf at an internal point within the material. Stealth Dicing is a dry cutting process, resulting in a clean cut with no molten deposits.
Various techniques can be used to create a hole with a laser, classified based on the movement of the laser beam relative to the workpiece. Each method offers its own set of advantages and disadvantages.
In this type of laser drilling, a single laser pulse with high energy is used to create a hole. This single beam laser focuses on a single location until the material melts layer by layer. The melting process is done efficiently and in a short amount of time, which makes this process desirable to produce multiple holes quickly.
In percussion drilling, the diameter of the laser beam matches the diameter of the hole being created. Unlike single-shot drilling, which uses a single laser pulse, percussion drilling employs successive low-energy pulses to remove material. This process involves 4 to 20 pulses, depending on the material's depth and the laser beam's properties, to fully penetrate the material. This technique is efficient for working with thick materials and quickly producing multiple holes.
In trepan laser drilling, the laser beam spot size is much smaller than the diameter of the hole being created. The process begins by making an initial hole, after which the laser beam moves around the perimeter of the hole to gradually expand it to the desired size. This technique is more efficient for drilling large holes compared to single-shot and percussion drilling methods. Although trepan drilling is slower, it offers improved metallurgy and hole geometry.
Similar to trepan drilling, this method employs a moving laser beam to drill through a material, but it does not require an initial hole. Instead, the laser beam rotates relative to the workpiece, mimicking the action of a conventional drill bit. Rotation is achieved using a spinning dove prism or other optical systems driven by a high-speed motor. The quality of the holes produced is comparable to those made by trepan drilling.
Initially, laser cutting involved manually positioning the workpiece for each cut. The process required moving the piece, making a cut, removing the laser, and then repositioning for the next cut. At that time, CNC programming and other technological advancements were not available. Today’s laser cutting technology has eliminated the need for manual positioning, using computer-controlled equipment to make precise and efficient cuts quickly.
The main types of gantry laser cutting machines are typically made of aluminum and feature a long horizontal bed with a gantry positioned above it. These machines can be programmed to perform multiple cuts in a single pass, using either fiber optic or CO₂ lasers. Gantry machines employ CNC-controlled programming to achieve efficient, accurate cuts quickly and easily. In contrast to manually operated machines with footprints ranging from 8 to 16 feet (2.4 to 4.9 meters), gantry machines have a more compact footprint of 4 to 8 feet (1.2 to 2.4 meters).
In this configuration, the laser cutter stays in a fixed position while the material surface moves. This eliminates the need for laser movement, resulting in a simpler optics system compared to other setups. However, this method is slower and typically suitable only for cutting flat materials.
This setup contrasts with the moving material configuration by using a stationary material and a movable laser cutter. As the laser moves continuously, the beam length must be adjusted regularly to compensate for beam divergence, which can affect cut quality. To address this, re-collimating optics and adaptive mirror control are employed. This configuration is the fastest of the three, as controlling the movement of the mirrors is more manageable.
In a hybrid system, the material moves along one axis while the optics move along another. This setup integrates the benefits and drawbacks of the previous two configurations. A key advantage over the flying optics system is that the hybrid system maintains a more consistent beam path, which helps reduce power losses.
CNC laser cutting employs a high-powered laser beam to mark, cut, shape, engrave, and form materials with precision. This technique is highly accurate, capable of creating small holes and intricate designs. Like other CNC machines, CNC laser cutters use G codes and M codes for programming, which direct tool movement and performance.
In contrast to traditional CNC machining, CNC laser cutters operate non-contact and are thermal-based. The laser head, equipped with a focusing lens and nozzle, directs high-intensity light onto the workpiece to melt and cut it. Compressed gas flows through the nozzle to cool the lens and remove vaporized metal.
Types of CNC Laser Cutting Machines include:
5-axis laser cutting allows the workpiece to tilt and rotate on the table, enabling the laser to access three-dimensional components and cut or drill curved surfaces at challenging angles. This capability reduces the need for frequent workpiece adjustments, minimizing setup time and reducing the potential for errors associated with multiple setups.
A rotary laser cutter features a rotating device that positions the workpiece to cut along curved surfaces. The motorized rotary attachment enables the workpiece to rotate during the cutting process, allowing for 360-degree cuts and engravings on pipes, tubes, bottles, elliptical tubes, and D-shaped items. This technology excels in placing intricate designs, logos, patterns, and information on curved surfaces, all while maintaining high efficiency and precision.
The term "small laser cutting" or "small geometry laser cutting" refers to the process of cutting intricate and small design features. These cutters are specifically used for projects where regular cutting methods fall short, especially when fine resolution is required. This technique is ideal for parts with features smaller than the width of the kerf.
Small geometry laser cutting offers exceptional precision, enabling the creation of delicate designs with high tolerances. The choice to use small format laser cutting depends on the material thickness, as larger laser cutters can negatively affect the final product. Additionally, small format geometry laser cutters are chosen based on the feature size, which can be smaller than a kerf of 0.1 mm (0.0039 in).
Large format laser cutting is employed when working with oversized features or projects that exceed the typical workspace dimensions. Large format laser cutters are designed to handle materials of considerable size, with workspaces often measuring up to 3.2 m by 8 m (10.5 ft by 26.25 ft).
Flatbed laser cutting systems are used for large format cutting and come with bed sizes ranging from 1.3 m by 2.5 m to 2 m by 3 m (4.3 ft by 8.2 ft to 6.56 ft by 9.84 ft). These systems facilitate the automatic cutting and engraving of large materials by allowing them to be placed directly in the processing area.
Flatbed laser cutters are large format machines designed to cut a variety of materials, including metals, cloth, wood, and more. They can handle either a single large feature or multiple smaller features on a large piece of material. These cutters feature a spacious, flat horizontal surface for material placement. The laser is housed in a mechanism that moves along the sides of the bed, with the laser itself moving back and forth over the cutting surface.
Flatbed laser cutters can utilize CO₂ fiber, or crystal lasers. The choice of laser type depends on the material being processed: CO₂ lasers are typically used for non-metallic materials, while fiber lasers are suited for metals. Additionally, flatbed laser cutters can be configured to continuously feed materials as part of a production or assembly process.
Galvo laser cutters use mirrors to deflect the laser beam, allowing it to move in various directions by rotating, adjusting, and repositioning the mirrors. The operation of galvo laser cutters is based on a galvanometer, which detects and measures electric current through the movement of a magnetic field.
A galvanometer in a galvo laser system directs the laser to the marking surface using a series of mirrors. This design enables galvo lasers to complete the engraving process much faster than traditional lasers, which move along the X and Y axes at slower speeds. By rapidly repositioning the mirror angles, galvo lasers can mark larger areas of the workpiece at a higher rate.
There are numerous laser cutting machines available in the United States and Canada that are crucial to modern industries due to their precision and versatility. These machines enable the efficient fabrication of intricate parts and components, fostering technological advancements and economic growth. Below, we explore several leading laser cutting machines and their manufacturers.
Popular models: TruLaser 3030, TruLaser 5040, TruLaser 5030 Fiber
Features: The Trumpf TruLaser Series is celebrated for its superior cutting performance, cutting-edge laser technology, and advanced automation capabilities. These machines use fiber laser sources that provide exceptional cutting speeds and efficiency, particularly for thin to medium-thick materials. They also offer intelligent automation features, such as automated loading and unloading systems, to enhance productivity.
Popular models: LC-3015, LC-4020, LC-1212 Alpha
Features: The Amada LC Series is renowned for its precision and reliability. Equipped with high-power lasers and advanced cutting controls, these machines handle a variety of applications and material thicknesses with ease. The LC Series often includes proprietary technologies, such as the AMNC 3i control system, which offers user-friendly interfaces and enhanced cutting performance.
Popular models: ByStar Fiber, ByStar Fiber 6225, ByStar Fiber 8025
Features: The Bystronic ByStar Series is known for its high-speed cutting capabilities and energy-efficient fiber laser sources. These machines typically feature large working areas, ideal for processing big sheets and plates. Bystronic's innovative cutting heads and intelligent control systems make these machines popular for their precise and rapid cutting of various materials.
Popular models: Optiplex 3015 Fiber III, Optiplex 4020 Fiber III, Optiplex Nexus Fiber
Features: The Mazak Optiplex Series is distinguished by its advanced fiber laser technology and robust construction. These machines deliver excellent cutting performance across a range of materials, including steel, aluminum, and copper. Features such as Mazak's Intelligent Setup Assistant and PreviewG control technology enhance usability and productivity.
Popular models: CL-960, CL-940
Features: The Cincinnati CL-900 Series is known for its powerful laser sources and versatile cutting capabilities. These machines often come equipped with high-speed shuttle tables for efficient material handling, reducing downtime between cuts. The ProFocus™ Laser Cutting Head and Touchscreen HMI offer intuitive control and precise cutting performance.
Keep in mind that the popularity of these machines may vary depending on industry requirements, budget constraints, and regional preferences. Additionally, new models and advancements in laser cutting technology may have emerged since this update, so it is advisable to research the latest options available on the market.
Laser marking involves creating marks on a workpiece by cutting its surface at a shallow depth or inducing chemical changes through processes such as burning, melting, ablation, or polymerization. Similar to laser cutting and laser drilling, laser marking is a non-contact process, eliminating issues like tool wear and unwanted surface hardening. Additionally, laser marking does not require inks, offering an advantage over traditional printing methods. Various types of laser marking processes are summarized below.
This process involves selectively removing areas of a coating layer previously applied to the surface of the workpiece. The removed regions contrast with the remaining coating, making them clearly visible. This type of laser marking is typically used with special films and coated metals.
This method involves cutting the surface of the workpiece to a specific depth, typically using the laser vaporization process. The main advantage of this technique is its ability to operate at high speeds.
Thermal bonding involves fusing additional pigmented materials, such as glass powders or crushed metal oxides, onto the surface of the workpiece. The laser's heat melts these materials, creating a bond with the surface.
Annealing involves using a laser to heat specific regions of the workpiece. The applied heat causes the metal to oxidize, producing various colors like black, yellow, red, and green.
Carbonizing breaks the plastic bonds between polymers, releasing hydrogen and oxygen and resulting in a darker color. This process is used on plastics and organic materials.
Foaming is typically performed on plastics, where the laser destroys and vaporizes color pigments and carbon, causing the material to foam. This technique is used to create lighter-colored markings on dark-colored materials.
Staining induces chemical reactions on the workpiece's surface, with the reaction products exhibiting different colors.
Laser drilling is extensively used in aerospace, automotive, electronics, and tool machining industries. Here are the main advantages of using lasers for drilling.
Laser drilling eliminates the need for physical cutting tools, which means there is no issue of tool wear or damage. Unlike conventional drilling, where drill bits can become dull and slow down the process while generating excess heat, laser drilling avoids these problems. This prevents distortion of the material and maintains its mechanical properties.
Laser beams can be precisely focused, allowing for the accurate drilling of small holes that conventional methods cannot achieve. The depth of the holes can be finely controlled, even at the micro-scale. Additionally, the process is digitally controlled through CNC systems, ensuring that all parameters are automatically regulated to produce consistent and repeatable results.
In precision manufacturing, secondary processes like deburring are required to remove surface irregularities, metal spurs, raised edges, slags, and dross. Even advanced techniques such as laser cutting can produce dross or thermal burrs, but compared to conventional cutting, laser-cut parts generally exhibit superior edge quality. This reduces the cost of secondary processes, particularly deburring, which can account for up to 30% of operating costs.
Laser drilling allows for creating very deep holes with small diameters without issues. Conventional drills can overheat, wobble, and break due to torsional stress when drilling such holes. Lasers, on the other hand, create no frictional resistance and are only limited by the laser generator and optical systems used.
Lasers are effective for cutting and drilling materials that are challenging for conventional machining. They can handle high-strength metals like titanium and steel superalloys. Additionally, lasers are used to cut crystals, ceramics, and even diamonds due to their ability to achieve controlled fractures.
Drilling speeds with lasers depend solely on the configuration of the optical system and the movement of the cutting head, with no need for tool positioning against the workpiece. The complexity of the profile to be cut has minimal impact on the incremental cost of operating the machine.
As most of the molten material is expelled by the assist gas, there are no residual stresses along the drilled edges. This results in a clean, mechanically stable cut.
Despite these advantages, current laser drilling technology cannot entirely replace conventional methods. Here are the main reasons why.
Laser cutting machines are often significantly more expensive than waterjet and plasma cutters. The return on investment may not always justify the higher initial costs.
Operating a laser cutting machine requires specialized technical knowledge due to the complex range of operating parameters. Additionally, CO₂ and crystal lasers need expert attention to restore them to proper working condition if misalignment occurs.
Laser cutting demands highly precise movements, especially for applications requiring microns of accuracy. Two factors influence this precision: the accuracy of the control system and drivers, which must deliver precise signals to the high-resolution drivers, and the dimensional accuracy of the laser cutting components. Ensuring accurate mating of linear guides, lead screws, and other transmission parts, often achieved through deburring, is crucial.
The depth of cut is influenced by various parameters, with power being the most significant. For the same power rating, plasma cutters can achieve deeper cuts than lasers. Common industrial laser systems with power ratings above 1kW can cut carbon steel up to 13 mm thick.
While plasma and laser cutting are both cutting processes and may seem similar, they are fundamentally different in their application and principles. Both methods were developed in the mid-20th century and have since evolved to meet the demands of modern manufacturing techniques.
Laser cutting involves using amplified laser light to cut materials with exceptional precision, thanks to CNC control. The process focuses laser light through optics, concentrating it to a fine, intense beam that melts and cuts through the workpiece. During this process, the material is burned, and an assist gas or vaporization removes the waste material.
Plasma cutting is a technique for cutting electrically conductive materials using a jet of hot plasma combined with oxygen or nitrogen gas. This method can handle even rugged or tough materials. Plasma cutting is limited to materials that conduct electricity, including aluminum, stainless steel, steel, brass, and copper. The cutting plasma is a highly conductive, ionized gas that reaches extremely high temperatures during the process. Although plasma cutting tools operate similarly, the specific type of tool used depends on its temperature.
Plasma cutting tools operate at temperatures exceeding 40,000 degrees Fahrenheit (22,200°C). When integrated with CNC machining, this process produces parts that often require no additional finishing or machining. Unlike laser cutters, plasma cutters emit radiation, which necessitates the use of protective clothing and safety glasses or goggles for operators.
The primary difference between plasma and laser cutting lies in their energy sources: plasma cutting uses a plasma gas, while laser cutting relies on a focused beam of light. Plasma cutting also involves some safety concerns due to the radiation it emits. Despite their differences, both methods are efficient and precise, each excelling in its own way based on how it performs the cutting process.
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